Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC)

There are many available choices for asymmetric cryptography, such as RSA or DLP-based cryptosystems. However, ECC has an edge over others in that it requires a shorter length keys than other cryptosystems to provide a similar security level. For example, where RSA, DLP-based cryptosystems require a key of 1024-2048 bits, we will need a key length of only 160-256 bits for ECC. Being able to use shorter key lengths with ECC means we get shorter digital signatures.

For cryptography, an elliptic curve is a particular type of polynomial equation constructed over a finite field. Prime fields, denoted as $GF(p)$ (after the name of mathematician Galois), are the most popular choice of finite fields, where all arithmetic is performed over modulo prime $p$.

The elliptic curve equation in a finite field is:

$y^2≡x^3+ax+b \ mod \ p:p>3 \ and \ a,b \ are \ elements \ of \ Z_p$

Special consideration to note:

$a$, $b$ and $p$ are required to satisfy the condition $4a^3+27b^2 \ mod \ p ≠0$

We consider an imaginary point of infinity $Φ$ (this is simply an identity element)

To visualise the above equation and understand a few operations, we must make use of coordinate geometry.

Note - plotting the above graph defined with $Z_p$does not give us a curve, but rather a set of discrete points instead.

Therefore to demonstrate some ideas in the following examples, we construct the graph over a set of real numbers which yields a complete curve.

Group Operations

We mentioned the identity element above, and now, below is a high-level overview of group operations.

Point Doubling

To add points $P$ and $Q$, we do the following steps:

1. Draw a line joining $P$ and $Q$ and extend it until it intersects the curve. This point of intersection will be the negative of the sum $P+Q$
2. Therefore the mirror image about the x-axis of the point of intersection on the curve gives us the value of $P+Q$

Special Case I - When $Q=P$, then what is $P+Q$, i.e., $P+P$?

The way to visualise this is to keep moving $Q$ closer and closer to $P$ and observe that the line will become a tangent at point $P$. Extend this line to intersect the curve. The mirror image about the x-axis is the value of $P+P$, i.e., $2P$. This first special case is referred to as Point Doubling.

Special Case II - When $Q=-P$ in other words, $Q$ is inverse of $P$, $P+Q$​ is the identity element (imaginary point $Φ$ at infinity)

Special Case III - When $P=(x,0)$, then $P+P$ is equal to the identity element $Φ$

Note:

i. The rationale to perform addition ensures that the set of points on the elliptic curve, satisfies the necessary condition for a group.

ii. Generalizing above, in real-world applications, point addition is achieved by finding the slope of the line and solving the cubic equation.

Inverse

Is considered as a mirror image of the point on the curve. Identity is already mentioned above.

Scalar Multiplication

Scalar Multiplication is defined as multiplying point $P$ with scalar $n$ is essentially 'adding a point to itself $n$ times.'

$nP = P+P+ …..+P (n \ times)$

Scalar Multiplication is achieved by using Point Addition and Point Doubling. The algorithm used for Scalar Multiplication is included below; however, it is an optional topic. The algorithm is used for computing public keys in ECDSA

Square-and-Multiply Algorithm

Scalar Multiplication makes use of the "square-and-multiply algorithm." The difference is square is replaced by Point Doubling and multiply by Point Addition.

Convert the scalar value into a binary representation. Start from (MSB - 1) position and iterate till LSB (MSB stands for "Most significant bit" and LSB stands for "Least significant bit").

If in the iteration a bit is 0, then perform Point Doubling; if the bit is 1, then perform Point Doubling and Point Addition. For MSB, we don't perform any operation and consider the value as-is.

Let's say we want to find a value of $11P$. First we need to convert decimal into binary representation: $11P$ = $(1011)_2P=(d_3d_2d_1d_0)_2P$

Scan the bits on MSB i.e., $d_3$ and go till LSB $d_0$

Iteration 0: $P = 1_2 P$ initial setting, bit processed: $d_3 = 1$ ---------------------------- Iteration 1a: $P + P = 2P = 10_2 P$ point double, bit processed: $d_2 = 0$ Iteration 1b: no point addition, as $d_2 = 0$ ---------------------------- Iteration 2a: $2P + 2P = 4P = 2(10_2 P )= 100_2 P$ point double: $d_1 =1$ Iteration 2b: $4P + P = 5P = 101_2 P$ point add, as $d_1 = 1$ --------------------------- Iteration 3a: $5P + 5P = 10 P = 2(101_2 P ) = 1010_2 P$ point double: $d_0 = 1$ Iteration 3b: $10P + P = 11P = 1011_2 P$ point add: $d_0 = 1$

When we define the elliptic curve as above, under certain conditions the set of points and the identity element form a cyclic group. Firstly, the formation of a cyclic group implies the set must have a generator, i.e., an element in the set, such that its powers generate the entire group. Secondly, it leads to the next and last topic of pre-requisites.